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Cohesion: reference, substitution and lexical chains
C2 C2 grammar · lesson 7 of 12
A text is more than a list of correct sentences. Cohesion devices link each sentence to the ones around it, so readers can follow your ideas without effort.
Four ways to link sentences
In C1 you studied substitution and ellipsis inside sentences. At C2 you use these tools, together with reference words and vocabulary choices, across whole paragraphs.
| Device | What it does | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Reference | points back (or forward) to something already named | The plan failed. This surprised nobody. |
| Substitution | replaces a word or clause with one, do so, so, not | I need a pen. Do you have one? |
| Ellipsis | leaves words out because they are clear | Anna can swim, but Tom can’t [swim]. |
| Lexical chain | links ideas through related words | drought… dry season… lack of rain… water shortage |
Reference: this, that, these, such, the former/the latter
Pronouns like it refer to a noun. This and that can refer to a whole idea or situation. Strong writers often add a «summary noun» after this to make the link clear: this problem, this trend, this approach. The former and the latter refer to the first and second of two items.
Prices rose by 12% in a single year. This increase hit low-income families hardest.
Some firms cut jobs; others reduced salaries. The latter proved less damaging to morale.
The village has no doctor and no bus service. Such problems are common in remote areas.
This is what I propose: we delay the launch by a month. (forward reference)
The council promised to repair the road and did so within a week.
Will the deal go ahead? Most analysts think not.
Lexical chains
Repeating the same noun again and again sounds heavy, but replacing it with random synonyms can confuse. A lexical chain uses synonyms, general words and related words that the reader can clearly connect: the earthquake… the disaster… the event… the tremor. General nouns (issue, situation, matter, factor) are especially useful links.
Mia bought an old farmhouse last year. The building needed a new roof, and the property came with three acres of land.
Common mistakes
✗ Sales fell and staff left. It was worrying. (unclear what «it» means)
✓ Sales fell and staff left. This situation was worrying.
✗ This cup is dirty. Can I have a clean ones?
✓ This cup is dirty. Can I have a clean one?
✗ Leo and Sam applied; the latter one was chosen.
✓ Leo and Sam applied; the latter was chosen.